Chapter Four
A Summary Of Social Characteristics In Animals
Before moving on to consider human individuality, the argument has reached a point at which it is possible to sum up the evidence that has been presented for a relationship between emerging consciousness and the progressive elaboration of social behaviours. This is displayed in Table Three. Where the answer in a given cell is self-evident, a simple 'Yes' or 'No' is entered, and in a few cases 'N/A'; where the evidence is less clear or a 'Yes/No' answer might be contentious, a reference is given. The comparable level of consciousness, entered in column 1 using the scale presented in this book, is given only as an extremely approximate guide.
If a line is imagined running from the top left-hand corner of the table to the bottom right-hand corner, then, approximately speaking species don't have a given level of consciousness if they fall mostly to the left of the line, and do have it if they fall mostly to the right of the line.
Click here to see the Table on one page.
Table Three: A Cognitive Map Of Social Behaviours
Level
of Consciousness |
Trait |
Chondrich- thians (shark) |
Amphibian
(frog, salaman- der) |
Sauropsid
(snake, lizard) |
Sauropsid
(bird) |
Mammal
(rodent) |
Primate
(Great Ape) |
Homo
Sapiens |
| Categorizing
Responsive- ness |
Grouping |
During
mating1 |
Yes8 |
During
mating19 |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
| Territoriality |
Yes2 |
Yes9 |
Rare |
Yes |
Yes51
|
Yes |
Yes |
|
| Dominance
hierarchies |
Yes3 |
Yes10
|
Yes21
|
Yes |
Yes51
|
Yes63 |
Yes |
|
| Group predation |
Yes4 |
N/A
|
No
|
Yes |
N/A
|
Yes |
Yes |
|
| Courtship |
Yes6 |
Yes13 |
Yes24 |
Yes |
Yes
|
Yes |
Yes |
|
| Play |
Reported |
No |
Repor- ted25 |
Yes |
Yes
|
Yes |
Yes |
|
| Social
Responsive- ness |
Parental
care |
No |
Moderate12 |
Some- times26 |
Yes |
Yes
|
Yes
|
Yes |
| Deception |
No |
Yes15 |
Some- times |
Yes41
|
Yes52
|
Yes |
Yes |
|
| Gestural
communica- tion |
No |
No
|
Yes32
|
Yes42
|
Yes53
|
Yes |
Yes |
|
| Vocalization |
No |
Yes18 |
Yes30
|
Yes43
|
Yes53
|
Yes
|
Yes |
|
| Social
Conscious- ness |
Mutual
grooming |
No |
No
|
Marginal31
|
Yes
|
Yes56
|
Yes |
Yes |
| Intentionality |
No |
No
|
No |
Yes45
|
Yes54
|
Yes |
Yes |
|
| Altruism |
No |
No |
No
|
Yes46
|
Yes55
|
Yes70 |
Yes |
|
| Food- sharing |
No |
No
|
No
|
Yes48
|
Moder- ate57 |
Yes74 |
Yes |
|
| Division
of labour |
No |
No
|
No
|
Yes48
|
Marginal |
Yes
|
Yes |
|
| Self
Aware- ness |
Laughter |
No |
No |
No |
No |
No |
Yes
|
Yes |
| Dance |
No |
No |
No |
No |
No |
Yes
|
Yes |
|
| Culture |
No |
No |
No |
No |
No |
Yes
|
Yes |
|
| Song |
No |
No |
No |
Yes |
No |
Yes
|
Yes |
|
| Ritual |
No |
No |
No |
No |
No |
No
|
Yes |
|
| Cultural
trans- mission |
No |
No |
No |
Occa- sional50 |
Moder- ate58 |
Yes80 |
Yes |
|
| Language |
No |
No |
No |
No |
No |
No
|
Yes |
|
| Trade |
No |
No |
No |
No |
No |
No
|
Yes |
|
| Gossip |
No |
No |
No |
No |
No |
Marginal | Yes |
Footnotes (References):
1. Whitney, Pratt and Carrier (2004)
2. Pratt and Carrier (2001)
3. Pratt and Carrier (2001)
4. Martin, Hammerschlag, Collier and Fallows (2005)
6. Sims, Southall, Quayle and Fox (2000)
8. Mathis. Schmidt and Medley (2000)
9. Mathis. Schmidt and Medley (2000)
12. Crump (1996)
13. Jaeger, Gillette and Cooper (2002)
15. Bee, Perrill and Owen (2000)
18. Kanamadi, Schneider, Hiremath and Jirankali (1993)
19. Rivas and Burghardt (2005)
21. Davis (2007)
24. Carpenter (1977)
25. Burghardt (2002)
26. Hartdegen, Russell, Young and Reams (2001)
30. Hartdegen, Russell, Young and Reams (2001)
31. Greenberg (2003)
32. Martins (1994)
41. Clayton, Dally, Gilbert and Dickinson (2005)
42. Rogers and Kaplan (2000)
43. Robinson (1990)
45. Prior, Schwartz and Güntürkün (2008)
46. Yarmoosh (2008)
48. Adeyemo and Ayodele (2005)
49. Bartlett, Mock and Schwagmeyer (2005)
50. Bluff, Weir, Rutz, Wimpenny and Kacelnik (2007)
51. Lacey and Wieczorek (2001)
52. Steele, Halkin, Smallwood, McKenna, Mitsopoulos and Beam (2008)
53. Douvris (2001)
54. Hare and Atkins (2001)
55. Hare and Murie (1996)
56. Hillegass, Waterman and Roth (2008)
57. Spritzer and Brazeau (2003)
58. Galef (1996)
63. Seyfarth and Cheney (2003)
70. Bickerton (2000)
74. De Waal (1989)
80. Whitten and Boesche (1999) and Van Schaik (2006)